New scientific investigations into the remnants of household shrines and incense burners from the ancient city of Pompeii are shedding light on the religious customs of its inhabitants before the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. These discoveries confirm details found in historical writings and unveil the global trade networks that supplied the items used in daily devotions.
Before its destruction, Pompeii was a thriving hub with an estimated population of 20,000, where daily life was punctuated by trade, communal gatherings, and a deep-seated religious piety. The city's sudden burial under volcanic ash remarkably preserved its structures and artifacts, providing an invaluable snapshot of Roman life. Among the most significant finds are over 500 household shrines, known as lararia, which were central to domestic worship. These shrines typically featured painted or sculpted figures of household deities—including the Lares (guardians of home and land), Genius (the protective spirit), and Penates (protectors of the pantry)—facilitating an intimate connection between families and their gods, believed to ensure prosperity and security.
A particularly insightful discovery was made in 1986 at Boscoreale, near Pompeii, where a complete domestic shrine from a country estate was unearthed. This site yielded a marble statue of a reclining woman, a silver plaque, various vessels, and a terracotta incense burner adorned with three anthropomorphic female figures, likely representing deceased individuals. Historical accounts from Roman writers indicate that censers were employed for burning offerings such as fruits, flowers, grains, and wreaths. Specific plants were also sacred to certain gods; for instance, oak was linked to Jupiter, and laurel to Apollo.
Until recently, while ancient texts described these ritualistic burnings, the precise materials used remained unconfirmed. A groundbreaking study, led by Dr. Johannes Eber from the University of Zurich, employed scientific analysis on the ash residues found in these Pompeian censers. This pioneering research identified biomarkers of wine from grape offerings and aromatic resins like frankincense. These findings corroborate the descriptions of funerary practices by the 1st-century writer Statius, who detailed the use of exotic perfumes and wine in rituals for the deceased. Interestingly, the frankincense discovered originated from India or sub-Saharan Africa, suggesting that Romans went to great lengths, even beyond the Empire's borders, to acquire materials for their religious rites.
Dr. Rebecca Gerdes, a Cornell University archaeologist specializing in organic residue analysis, highlighted the challenges of identifying ancient organic materials due to degradation and contamination. However, she emphasized that the distinct biomarker molecules of resins make their identification more feasible, especially when combined with evidence of heating. Gerdes lauded the study for its multidisciplinary approach, integrating scientific techniques with archaeological evidence, which she believes is crucial for reconstructing the sensory aspects of Roman domestic life and worship.
Professor Caitie Barrett, also an archaeologist at Cornell University, underscored the research's significance in moving beyond artistic and literary representations to examine the physical remains of offerings. She also noted how these findings offer new evidence for extensive ancient trade networks, demonstrating the interconnectedness of Afro-Eurasia. Barrett pointed out that exotic imports, such as an ivory statuette from India found in Pompeii and the frankincense sourced from distant lands, were integral to daily life and domestic rituals aimed at safeguarding families. This new research provides a rare, tangible glimpse into the choices made by ordinary Romans in their worship practices, affirming the vital role of religion in their daily existence.